This week, we are continuing with another excerpt from a pamphlet produced by Professor Gordon S. Christiansen, chairman of the Connecticut College Chemistry Department in the 1960s. In the pamphlet, Professor Christiansen considered various nuclear attack scenarios and detailed the likely effects and consequences on the New London area. The last excerpt from this pamphlet was mostly about the catastrophic effects of radiation on the human body from a relatively small atomic bomb like the one the United States used on Hiroshima in 1945 (you can read that here: https://www.facebook.com/VoluntownPeaceTrust/posts/2029219227228402).
This week, the same scenario is explored, but this time with regards to firestorms, damage to infrastructure, and possibilities for recovery and rebuilding. The effects of a Hiroshima-sized attack that Professor Christiansen has presented are deeply disturbing, but what’s worse is that modern nuclear weapons are much more powerful than the ones that almost completely destroyed the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Thankfully, on January 22, 2021, the United Nations’ Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons came into force, making the production, possession, and use of nuclear weapons to be an international crime. In honor of all of the victims of nuclear weapons, and with great hope in the new international treaty, we present Professor Christiansen’s Survival in Nuclear War a Vanishing Probability, part 2. — Fire would be the most destructive effect of the bomb, both to physical structures and human life. The great fire ball which surrounds the bursting bomb within a few millionths of a second reaches a temperature of several million degrees. This tremendous source of heat radiates down over a huge area around the center of the detonation so that temperatures on the ground out three miles or more reach a thousand degrees. This heat causes third degree burns (charring of the flesh) to people in the open and sets fire to most combustible things such as trees, grass, frame buildings, etc. These fires, plus the many others caused by broken electric wires, gasoline storage tanks and gas mains, and by other blast effects, tend quickly to congeal into a single huge fire encircling the center of the bomb blast. At Hiroshima and in a few other massive fire bombing raids in World War II this phenomenon, called a “fire storm,” happened. It is quite probable that a fire storm extending out from four to five miles would be the outcome of this hypothetical “small” atomic bombing of New London. The ring of fire would include all of Waterford, probably spare Niantic, but would include Uncasville, Gales Ferry, much of Ledyard, probably include West Mystic and Noank, certainly all of the Submarine Base, and the rest of the town of Groton. The small local fires would join into bigger ones; the bigger ones would congeal into a solid mass of fire rushing toward the center of the destroyed area. The heavy, raging fires near the center would create an up-draft like a huge chimney and winds above 100 miles an hour would sweep the whole conflagration toward the center. It would rage completely out of control, consuming everything combustible before it — including most of the oxygen. Many people in this area who otherwise might have survived would be killed by suffocation. In this area a fallout shelter would serve only as a fiery trap in which lives saved from radiation would be consumed by fire. This is not a hypothetical possibility. It is what happened in several cities under full wartime conditions of alert and disaster preparation. And it happened in areas much better prepared than we are or are likely to be and in terrain and conditions of woodland cover much less likely to develop into a fire storm than we have in this area. In those war-time incidents, fire departments and public safety facilities were totally incapable of coping with the fire storm; in fact, they along with other people and agencies were consumed in the fire. The few survivors in the communities of Groton and New London would almost certainly have to be evacuated. All necessary facilities for a functioning community would be either totally or largely destroyed. The State Police barracks and all its occupants would have been totally crushed in the initial blast. The New London and Groton police stations, the railroad station and yards, the New London City Hall, all the stores in both downtown areas, most of the fire stations and apparatus, and all the schools would have been blasted into totally unrecognizable rubble. All ordinary civil functions would have been completely destroyed; transportation and communication with outside areas would be virtually nonexistent; most of the people would be dead and the survivors would almost all be seriously injured from burns, shock, radiation, and wounds from flying objects. A sizeable area, including the normal access to the communities, would be totally unusable for a period of months. Lawrence Memorial Hospital would have been (a) at least half destroyed by the initial blast, (b) seriously contaminated with radioactivity, and (c) probably consumed by fire. Norwich State Hospital [now defunct] would have been only partially damaged and only mildly contaminated, certainly in part usable as an improvised treatment center for bomb casualties. Backus Hospital would be largely intact except for fallout contamination. Its early use would require heroic efforts of decontamination by people willing to suffer radiation sickness and to risk increased likelihood of cancer, shortening of life expectancy, and possible death from radiation within a few weeks. If nurses happened to be away from the area of heavy initial destruction, it would then be possible to treat at least partially the huge numbers of casualties from areas outlying the immediate bomb area. Is it possible to make sensible estimates of the numbers of dead and wounded and of the reasonably unhurt survivors? It hasn’t even been possible to determine these facts accurately for Hiroshima to this day. Out of the 300,000 population, between a third and a half were killed outright and another 50,000 or so were fatally injured. Citizens of Hiroshima are still dying at the rate of about 100 per year from causes directly attributable to the atomic bomb. In 1960 the American Atomic Bomb Casualty Hospital there treated over 18,000 persons for radiation disease and other bomb injuries. A conservative estimate would place the deaths in the New London and West Groton areas near 90 per cent. Outside the three or four mile radius the death rate would drop drastically but the numbers of serious injuries from all causes would be very great. Out as far as Niantic, Norwich and Mystic, people who were knowledgeable, well prepared, reasonably lucky and ruthlessly selfish in taking care of themselves would probably be uninjured. If that single atomic bomb were the only act of war which affected this area or surrounding areas, the answer to the question of survival and regeneration of the community as a whole could be answered quite optimistically. After a few months of extreme exigency in which privation, suffering and regimentation would be the common lot of the survivors, Groton and New London would be rebuilt. The people of Southeastern Connecticut, aided by other remote communities, would within a year be well on the way toward recreating a community in this area. Reasoning from the analogy of Hiroshima, one would expect that a modern new city would be built on the rubble of the old. In five years time little physical evidence of the bombing would remain. In Hiroshima only one twisted skeleton of a reinforced concrete building remains, deliberately left as a grim memorial of the incident of 8:15 a.m., Monday, August 6, 1945; otherwise the city has been entirely rebuilt and is now as populous and prosperous as before the bombing. But there would be ample human evidence of the bombing, remaining for the lifetime of the survivors and perhaps for generations to come. These would be the crippled and deformed, the scarred and blinded, the malformed mutated children of the survivors who suffered genetically damaging but less than killing dosages of radiation. The possibility of recreating a community life in this area after a general nuclear attack is, to put it as mildly as possible, much less promising… — Take Action If you are concerned about nuclear weapons and live in Connecticut, consider joining the CT Committee on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The Committee organizes demonstrations against nuclear weapons throughout the year. Sign up to the mailing list here: https://forms.gle/pX8v2U4CktAcz8s78 You can also sign petitions to pressure our government to ratify the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, like this one: https://actionnetwork.org/petitions/support-the-nuclear-weapons-ban-treaty — Support Us We commit a significant amount of research and writing to produce A Peace of History each week. If you like our weekly posts, please consider supporting this project with a one-time or recurring donation. Your gift will be used to continue producing more A Peace of History posts as well as the greater mission of VPT. You may type in however much you would like to give; contributions of all sizes are appreciated. Click this link to learn more about what we do and how you can donate: https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Voluntown-Peace-Trust — Sources Christiansen, Gordon S. Survival in Nuclear War a Vanishing Probability. Connecticut College, 1961. — Further Resources “Electric Boat History.” General Dynamics: Electric Boat. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. http://www.gdeb.com/about/history/ “Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance.” Arms Control Association. August 2020 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat “Treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons.” United Nations: Office of Disarmament Affairs. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/ Wellerstein, Alex. “Nukemap.” Nuclear Secrecy. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ “What if We Nuke a City?” Kurzgesagt — In a Nutshell. 13 October 2019 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iPH-br_eJQ This is the full-scan of the first-hand account of the Minutemen attack on VPT during the early hours of August 24, 1968. Mary Suzuki Lyttle, who had been on watch earlier that night, was in the family room of the Farmhouse with another woman, Bobbie Trask, when the assailants broke in. To read the whole account, download the PDF file here.
Over the last few days, the world watched in horror as the NATO-backed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan government collapsed amidst a hasty evacuation of the last US personnel from Kabul. Stephen Zunes’ recent piece in Truthout provides an excellent summary and analysis of the United States’ repeated failures in Afghanistan in the last 20 years, and how those failures compounded to create the present tragedy. Like many others around the world, we in the Voluntown Peace Trust community have opposed the War in Afghanistan on moral and strategic grounds from the start, and we have never been shy to express our stance on the matter. As the Taliban finish their consolidation of power over Afghanistan, and as long as authoritarians of all stripes and creeds oppress peoples in the world, we will continue to do our work raising awareness, appealing to conscience, and speaking truth to power.
We at VPT have been in touch with Afghani war resisters for several years. If you are one of them, we would love to hear your thoughts, and we encourage you to leave a comment. — ‘We must not allow the tragedy unfolding in Afghanistan to be used to rewrite history and teach the wrong lessons… We must not erase the U.S.’s longtime role in the creation of the humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan: The current chaos and violence have been nearly 20 years in the making. Indeed, Biden actually delayed the withdrawal for several months beyond Trump’s May deadline, making claims by the former president and his supporters that Biden had suddenly decided to “surrender” to the Taliban particularly absurd…’ Read the rest of Stephen Zunes’ article here: https://truthout.org/articles/us-policy-toward-afghanistan-was-a-recipe-for-collapse-from-the-start/ — Take Action If you are concerned about the events unfolding in Afghanistan, there are a few things you can do. First, educate yourself on the recent history of Afghanistan and the US-Afghanistan relationship. Especially seek out Afghani voices. Then, urge Congress to support refugee evacuations from Afghanistan, as they did after the US departure from Vietnam. As the situation continues to develop, we will share more information about groups to support. — Support Us We commit a significant amount of research and writing to produce A Peace of History each week. If you like our weekly posts, please consider supporting this project with a one-time or recurring donation. Your gift will be used to continue producing more A Peace of History posts as well as the greater mission of VPT. You may type in however much you would like to give; contributions of all sizes are appreciated. Click this link to learn more about what we do and how you can donate: https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Voluntown-Peace-Trust Last week, we marked Hiroshima Day with an examination of the effects of a nuclear detonation in a modern city as well as New London County’s involvement in the nuclear arms industry. For the next few weeks, we will continue thinking about nuclear weapons and New London County, specifically through the transcription of a pamphlet published in 1961 by Gordon S. Christiansen, former professor and chairman of the Connecticut College Chemistry Department. In the year after the Committee for Nonviolent Action (CNVA) came to New London to educate the people about the realities of nuclear-armed submarines, Professor Christiansen wrote and published this pamphlet, ultimately donating a copy to the CNVA. Professor Christiansen produced this pamphlet to continue the community’s education of the nuclear weapons issue, giving scientific support to the ethical and strategic concerns the CNVA raised. In honor of the victims of the US atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 76 years ago, we present Professor Christiansen’s Survival in Nuclear War a Vanishing Probability, part 1.
— Could Southeastern Connecticut survive a nuclear attack? What would be the effects of an atomic weapon dropped within this area? What conditions would we face if this area was not hit directly but other areas of New England and New York were hit by nuclear weapons? What defenses are available to us? What would conditions of post-attack living be like? Is there anything we could do now to prevent their happening? These are questions which all responsible citizens must face squarely; they are also questions which demand informed and thoughtful answers — answers which may determine whether or not this region survives as a community. [...] For the purposes of this discussion three hypothetical situations have been considered. First a small, Hiroshima type, atomic bomb (17,000 tons of TNT explosive equivalent) detonated above the Groton-New London bridge. Second a ground burst of a nominal 20 megaton (24 million tons of TNT explosive equivalent), again at the center of the bridge. And third, no nuclear weapons detonated in the immediate area but a general nuclear attack on the prime targets in Northeastern United States. (The Joint Committee on Atomic Energy did not consider the New London area to be a prime target.) The Hiroshima bomb was detonated at 8:15 in the morning on a clear day; let us assume the same conditions here in New London. The immediate blast effect would be the total destruction, down to a virtual flattening, of an area about 2000 yards in diameter. This would include both bridges, all of East New London, all of the downtown Groton area, part of Electric Boat, most of the Coast Guard Academy, and all of the highway approaches with nearby buildings and installations. The area of destruction of heavily built brick buildings would extend out about a mile and a half. This would include virtually all of New London except the beach areas, all of Connecticut College, all of Groton Borough including the whole Electric Boat facility, and a part of the Submarine Base. Frame buildings would be totally destroyed out about a mile further, including much of Waterford, Quaker Hill, the Naval housing areas, and further parts of Groton. The immediate killing radiation from the bomb detonation would cover an area comparable to that of the total blast destruction. In this central area the chance of survival would be virtually nil under any circumstances. If a person were inside a masonry building he might be protected from the direct radioactivity but would be crushed along with the building or burned in the fires. The local fallout would begin within a few minutes and would carry an exceedingly high level of damaging radioactivity. This fallout would be in the form of dust and flakes and larger particles and also in the form of rain consisting of black, sooty, dust-laden drops. The intensity of the fallout radiation would decrease with radial distance from the point of explosion, warped somewhat by the low level winds. It is hard to estimate the level of radioactive exposure that would result but it would certainly be of the order of a few thousand roentgens per hour at a distance of a few (perhaps three or four) miles out from the center. In terms of survival, this level of radioactivity is such that five or ten minutes of exposure would surely be lethal. But the level of radioactivity would fall off rapidly both with time and with distance out from the center. Within the four mile circle it would decrease to around a few hundred roentgens per hour by nightfall so that a person at Connecticut College or the Sub Base, for example, would need to be exposed in the open for an hour or so to get a fatal dose of radiation. The levels of radioactivity beyond the immediate area, out to Mystic, Norwich or Niantic, would never become so great as close in near the point of detonation and also would fall off rapidly with time. In these communities a person could avoid serious injury from radiation by taking shelter immediately and remaining inside for a few days. Although the levels of direct radiation from fallout would drop to small fractions of their original killing power within a few days, there would be serious dangers for some weeks. It would be necessary to decontaminate most of the built up areas and to completely avoid using some facilities which are normally part of our lives. It would be particularly necessary to protect children from radiation. The double reasons of genetic damage to those who will be the parents of the next generation and the very much greater susceptibility of growing children to radiation damage would limit the lives of children in these communities to total protection (that is, constant living in an adequate shelter) for a few weeks and to very carefully restricted time outside of uncontaminated and adequately shielded buildings for a few months. The parents of these children would probably be willing to risk some levels of radiation damage (provided they were also willing never to have more children) in order to do the necessary jobs of supporting life in a shelter. The most serious source of radiation damage would be the ingestion of particles of radioactive fallout. This could be done through breathing contaminated air (even the most elegant shelters usually do not have adequate supplies of clean air), through contaminated food or water, or through open wounds such as cuts or burns. Buildings or open areas could ultimately be decontaminated but once radioactive material gets inside the human system it remains there as a subtle and virulent source of radioactive poison throughout the lifetime of the radioactivity — or the poisoned individual. It is also a fact that many substances which are innocuous outside the body, because a few inches of air or a layer of clothing will absorb their type of radiation, are viciously destructive if ingested where they come in direct contact with body tissues… — Take Action If you are concerned about nuclear weapons and live in Connecticut, consider joining the CT Committee on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The Committee organizes demonstrations against nuclear weapons throughout the year. Sign up to the mailing list here: https://forms.gle/pX8v2U4CktAcz8s78 You can also sign petitions to pressure our government to ratify the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, like this one: https://actionnetwork.org/petitions/support-the-nuclear-weapons-ban-treaty — Support Us We commit a significant amount of research and writing to produce A Peace of History each week. If you like our weekly posts, please consider supporting this project with a one-time or recurring donation. Your gift will be used to continue producing more A Peace of History posts as well as the greater mission of VPT. You may type in however much you would like to give; contributions of all sizes are appreciated. Click this link to learn more about what we do and how you can donate: https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Voluntown-Peace-Trust — Source Christiansen, Gordon S. Survival in Nuclear War a Vanishing Probability. Connecticut College, 1961. — Further Resources “Electric Boat History.” General Dynamics: Electric Boat. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. http://www.gdeb.com/about/history/ “Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance.” Arms Control Association. August 2020 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat “Treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons.” United Nations: Office of Disarmament Affairs. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/ Wellerstein, Alex. “Nukemap.” Nuclear Secrecy. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ “What if We Nuke a City?” Kurzgesagt — In a Nutshell. 13 October 2019 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iPH-br_eJQ Tomorrow is Hiroshima Day: the 76th anniversary of the US atomic bombing of the Japanese city Hiroshima. It is a somber annual reminder that too few Americans let pass without a second thought: a reminder of one of the most vicious, destructive, and world-changing actions the United States has ever committed. The moral legitimacy and strategic necessity of using the atomic bomb in war has been debated since even before the weapon was completed in 1945, but much of the recent scholarship concludes that the primary motivation for using the bomb on primarily civilian targets in Japan came from political expediency and racist ideas of the Japanese. As of January 22 of this year, nuclear weapons are illegal under international law: that includes prohibitions on developing, testing, producing, acquiring, possessing, stockpiling, deploying, and using or threatening to use nuclear weapons. The United States and Russia combined possess over 12,000 nuclear weapons, more than 90% of those in the world. All of the countries presently possessing nuclear weapons are now in violation of international law, but the United States has a unique responsibility among the nuclear-armed nations to dismantle its nuclear weapons and commit to a future free of nuclear weapons: the United States is the first and only country to ever use nuclear weapons in war.
Since at least the beginning of the Cold War, the economy in southeastern Connecticut has been heavily influenced by the military-industrial complex. General Dynamics: Electric Boat (EB) in New London and Groton is the 6th largest military contractor in the country, and has been designing and building nuclear-armed submarines for decades. Despite the outsized importance of EB in New London County’s economy, the company does not appreciably benefit the vast majority of residents — the City of New London’s median income is less than $36,000 per year, while CEO of EB Phebe Novakovic earned nearly $19 million in 2020. In fact, it was EB’s production of the Polaris subs, the first to carry nuclear weapons in the world, that brought the Committee for Nonviolent Action (CNVA) to the region in 1960. Two years later, as they continued their opposition to the growing nuclear weapons industry, the CNVA established the Voluntown Peace Trust. One common argument employees of Electric Boat often repeat is that EB does not build nuclear weapons; they merely build the delivery system. But how reasonable is this argument? Did the EB workers reach this conclusion on their own or is this argument part of the corporate culture? Is this argument taught to workers as the official company line? To take an example from another chapter of Connecticut’s history: while Colt did not produce ammunition, no one can reasonably claim that the company’s manufacture of its famous revolvers and rifles wasn’t a part of the firearms industry. Those guns were made to serve no other practical purpose than to shoot specific ammunition; so, too, are the modern submarines being built at EB. But while bullets can only usually strike one or two targets each, the modern nuclear weapons delivery system on the new Columbia-class submarines is designed to hold up to 16 Trident D-5 missiles, with each missile capable of carrying up to 14 W-76-1 thermonuclear warheads. Each of those warheads possess six times the destructive force as what the United States detonated over Hiroshima in 1945. Therefore, due to the way that multiple warheads are bundled into bigger missiles, the modern submarine-based nuclear weapons delivery system is specifically designed to launch multiple, city-destroying nuclear weapons at once. As Frida Berrigan recently concluded in a recent op-ed in New London’s The Day: “Multiply 12 times 16 times 14 times 6 and the potential carnage is almost unfathomable. The best way to understand the Columbia class submarine, then, is as a $100 billion-plus initiative that aims to deliver 16,128 Hiroshimas.” Many Americans think that they understand nuclear weapons. We’ve seen the iconic photographs of the mushroom cloud and of the ghostly black shadows where people close to the epicenter were vaporized, seen the shockwave on TV and in movies, perhaps even deployed such weapons in video games. But nothing, not even the actual historical examples of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, can fully convey the sheer devastation and suffering a nuclear detonation would have on a modern city today. First of all, a modern city relies much more on its infrastructure than even 76 years ago. A thermonuclear detonation over a modern city would be very much like several natural disasters at once, except far worse: buildings, bridges, roads, and essential infrastructure collapse like in an earthquake; a blast of wind shatters windows as far as 12 miles away and sends the lethal debris at unsuspecting bystanders; fires suddenly appear across the city at once as people begin burning alive and gas stations start exploding with no warning; if the city is lucky, the mushroom cloud will merely begin to rain down tarry, radioactive sludge; if the city is unlucky, the mushroom cloud will turn into a firestorm. Secondly, scientists and military leadership now know that after most nuclear detonations, anyone who enters the affected area within two weeks of the detonation will likely receive a lethal dose of radiation. This means that after a nuclear detonation, no doctors, nurses, firefighters, emergency response personnel of any kind, not even the military — no one will come to help for at least two weeks. The significance of the radiation’s effect and the two-week nuclear quarantine period cannot be overstated. In every other kind of massive disaster, outside help is feasible and even expected. Such help is impossible in the two weeks after a nuclear detonation, and no government on Earth has a practical, aid-oriented planned response to such an event. Meanwhile during those two weeks, thousands will remain trapped under the rubble of collapsed buildings, while thousands more with their clothes melted into their skin will wander the streets looking for food and water. Within the two weeks, still more thousands will have died from radiation sickness, physical injuries, and sheer exhaustion. Such a horrifying event is not simply possible; if we do not dismantle all nuclear weapons on Earth, it is inevitable. In some city someday, this will happen if we continue on the present path. It is naive to think that such a thing wouldn’t happen in New London County either; the very fact that Electric Boat is the US Navy’s primary submarine manufacturer, as well as the presence of Naval Submarine Base New London just upriver makes the region a key military target. Though the Hiroshima victims and the hibakusha (“explosion affected people”) are fading from living memory, we must never stop retelling their stories. But as long as nuclear weapons — and the tailor-made means to deliver them — are held by the United States, we as Americans have a unique responsibility to pressure our government to be rid of them. And as residents of New London County, we have a double-responsibility to honestly examine how the products of our local economy will eventually, inevitably cause the unthinkable level of death, devastation, and suffering inherent in a nuclear attack. — Take Action If you are concerned about nuclear weapons and live near New London, CT, consider joining the CT Committee on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons tomorrow, August 6 at the corners of Howard and Bank Streets in downtown New London. We will be there from 3p-5p to honor the victims of the US atomic bombing of Hiroshima, as well as to educate the public about the new illegality of nuclear weapons. See the Facebook event page for more info and to RSVP: https://fb.me/e/D33GQsIP You can also sign petitions to pressure our government to ratify the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, like this one: https://actionnetwork.org/petitions/support-the-nuclear-weapons-ban-treaty — Support Us We commit a significant amount of research and writing to produce A Peace of History each week. If you like our weekly posts, please consider supporting this project with a one-time or recurring donation. Your gift will be used to continue producing more A Peace of History posts as well as the greater mission of VPT. You may type in however much you would like to give; contributions of all sizes are appreciated. Click this link to learn more about what we do and how you can donate: https://www.mightycause.com/organization/Voluntown-Peace-Trust — Sources Berrigan, Frida. “On Friday, ‘Say no to nuclear weapons.’” The Day. 1 August 2021 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.theday.com/article/20210801/OP03/210809975 “Electric Boat History.” General Dynamics: Electric Boat. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. http://www.gdeb.com/about/history/ “Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance.” Arms Control Association. August 2020 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat “Treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons.” United Nations: Office of Disarmament Affairs. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/ Wellerstein, Alex. “Nukemap.” Nuclear Secrecy. [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ “What if We Nuke a City?” Kurzgesagt — In a Nutshell. 13 October 2019 [Accessed 4 August 2021]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iPH-br_eJQ |
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